Outline of the dissertation and writing plan (No less than 800 words)
The framing of news and information is one of the many techniques used by journalists and the press to influence the perceptions and thought direction of their audience. Many studies over the years have showed that the way information is presented and conveyed has a direct correlation to the way readers perceive the world and the facts happening, especially if the frames used are repeated regularly and with specific intervals over a certain period of time (Scheufele, 2000; Chong & Druckman, 2007; Lecheler, de Vreese, 2012). In the first semester of the year 2020, most media and social platforms all over the world have dedicated extensive news reportage to the development of the new coronavirus pandemic originated from Wuhan, China, that had later spread to over 100 countries at an alarming pace, with more than 9,473,000 confirmed cases and over 484,240 registered deaths worldwide (data from the WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard). Two of the most affected places after China were Italy (data refers to numbers collected in March and the first half of April 2020) and the United States of America (data refers to numbers collected from the second half of March 2020).
Despite being usually grouped together as a generalization as Western countries, Italy and the U.S. have very different political, social, economic and cultural systems, and thus dealt with the pandemic case in different ways. Just as different is the relationship both these countries have with China: as the virus originated from there, it’s important to analyze what links and opinions US and Italy have with China in order to better organize and explain the use of specific frames in the portrayal of the pandemic. Looking at the foreign policy towards China, it appears that Italy fort the most part has a positive public image centered on a relationship that is mainly of an economic and trading nature (Romano & Zanier, 2017). Thanks to the “Belt and Road” initiative, a more intense cultural exchange between both countries has led to an even more favorable position of China in Italy’s public opinion. Looking at the publications related to China in the national newspaper La Repubblica, we can to see a generally neutral-positive tone (articles taken from the online archive of La Repubblica in the years 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019).
The United States, on the other hand, see their relationship with China influenced by the relationship with the former Soviet Union during the Cold War, where a strong American opposition to socialist regimens was formed. Ever since, in the public eye of America, China as a socialist country is seen as a possible threat to the liberal ideals that the country represents (Yang, 2001; Sgueglia, 2011). Furthermore, with the incredible economic development China is going through, a rising feeling of suspicion and rivalry has emerged between the two countries: the US see in China a great economic competitor and have, over the decades, accused several times the Chinese government of intervention and manipulation in American inner affairs, like the Presidential elections in 2000, and have overall cast China in the negative light of a threat to global peace and stability (Yang, 2001; Okuda, 2016; Wang, 2010).
Seeing as the perception Italy and America have of China is different, it’s logical to think that the way media in both countries approached and portrayed the pandemic events, related to China, over the first half of the year is different.
This paper theorizes that for Italy, the events that transpired will be depicted in a mostly neutral-positive manner, and opinions regarding China will be mainly of an objective, commentary nature.
For America, we theorize that the events of the pandemic will be highlighted in a mostly negative way, and it’s expected that there will be a considerate presence of accusations and blaming towards China.
Through the analysis of the content of online news report of two national newspapers (the New York Times and La Repubblica), this paper focuses on finding the differences in framing of pandemic spread, quarantine measures and regulations, health risks and symptoms of the virus, attitude towards China in the U.S.A and Italy over time. This will allow for a more issue-specific analysis of content and salient issues of the newspapers to better compare differences a) within the same newspaper in different periods, and b) compared to the other counterpart chosen. McLeod and Blumler (1987) stated that in order to actually identify characteristics in one system, it is necessary to have another one to use as comparison, so that specific elements and differences may be easily pointed out; for this reason, Italy-China and US-China relations will be used in a comparative way to point out the elements that characterize each relationship and that are different from the other one.
First, an analysis of the relationship Italy and America have with China will be done, in order to better define their general view of the country.
Second, all articles regarding Covid-19 will be collected from both journals and divided according to the time they were written; then a random and significant sample will be taken for both newspapers, sample articles will be divided into further groups according to the frames they belong to, and analyzed in order to identify and operationalize issue-specific framing elements.
Thirdly, the use of frames and the issue-specific elements found will be analyzed in the scope of each country’s relationship with China: in this case, we speculate that the relationship between China-Italy and China-U.S.A. as independent variables have a direct and strong influence of use of frames and salient issue-specific elements (dependent variables), and will be distinctively different in Italy and the U.S.A.
Lastly, a parallel comparison between Italy and American use of frames and issue-specific elements will be done, to understand the differences, the possible similarities and the reasons of divergence/resemblance.
For this study, data and materials will be collected from the official online websites and archives of the two newspapers, the New York Times and La Repubblica, starting from January 15th 2020 to July 31st 2020, and divided according to four conveniently defined time phases (January-February, March-April, May-June, and July). Using the methodology of random sampling, a representative number of articles for both newspapers will be taken (the number of articles for La Repubblica and the New York Times may be different, but a proportionally relevant sample will be taken to guarantee fair comparison).
Writing Plan
1. Mid July – mid/end of September 2020
Search relevant articles for research, read articles, separate the 4 time phases, create a coding sheet and output parameters using UciNet and Gephi (coding of important topics), gather data
2. Mid Septmeber/October – mid November 2020
Analyze gathered data using UciNet, output visual graphs and write a description and analysis of the results
3. Mid November – mid/end December 2020
Test for reliability of coding, start sampling of articles, test sampling reliability. Begin analysis of sampled articles content.
4. January – March 2021
（Additional pages can be attached）
Prospectus report (including the review of related researches and the major research questions for this particular dissertation; listing possible arguments and academic value of the dissertation; elaborating the methodology adopted; listing the possible schedule to finish the dissertation. No less than 2400 words.)
Framing of Covid19 in Italian and US media models: a comparative case study
1. Introduction
The framing of news and information is one of the many techniques used by journalists and the press to influence the perceptions and thought direction of their audience. Many studies over the years have showed that the way information is presented and conveyed has a direct correlation to the way readers perceive the world and the facts happening, especially if the frames used are repeated regularly and with specific intervals over a certain period of time (Scheufele, 2000; Chong & Druckman, 2007; Lecheler, de Vreese, 2012). In the first semester of the year 2020, most media and social platforms all over the world have dedicated extensive news reportage to the development of the new coronavirus pandemic originated from Wuhan, China, that had later spread to over 100 countries at an alarming pace, with more than 9,473,000 confirmed cases and over 484,240 registered deaths worldwide (data from the WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard). Two of the most affected places after China were Italy (data refers to numbers collected in March and the first half of April 2020) and the United States of America (data refers to numbers collected from the second half of March 2020).
Despite being usually grouped together as a generalization as Western countries, Italy and the U.S. have very different political, social, economic and cultural systems, and thus dealt with the pandemic case in different ways. Just as different is the relationship both these countries have with China: as the virus originated from there, it’s important to analyze what links and opinions US and Italy have with China in order to better organize and explain the use of specific frames in the portrayal of the pandemic. Looking at the foreign policy towards China, it appears that Italy fort the most part has a positive public image centered on a relationship that is mainly of an economic and trading nature (Romano & Zanier, 2017). Thanks to the “Belt and Road” initiative, a more intense cultural exchange between both countries has led to an even more favorable position of China in Italy’s public opinion. Looking at the publications related to China in the national newspaper La Repubblica, we can to see a generally neutral-positive tone (articles taken from the online archive of La Repubblica in the years 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 https://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/).
The United States, on the other hand, see their relationship with China influenced by the relationship with the former Soviet Union during the Cold War, where a strong American opposition to socialist regimens was formed. Ever since, in the public eye of America, China as a socialist country is seen as a possible threat to the liberal ideals that the country represents (Yang, 2001; Sgueglia, 2011). Furthermore, with the incredible economic development China is going through, a rising feeling of suspicion and rivalry has emerged between the two countries: the US see in China a great economic competitor and have, over the decades, accused several times the Chinese government of intervention and manipulation in American inner affairs, like the Presidential elections in 2000, and have overall cast China in the negative light of a threat to global peace and stability (Yang, 2001; Okuda, 2016; Wang, 2010).
Seeing as the perception Italy and America have of China is different, it’s logical to think that the way media in both countries approached and portrayed the pandemic events, related to China, over the first half of the year is different.
Through the analysis of the content of online news report of two national newspapers (the New York Times and La Repubblica), this paper focuses on finding the differences in framing of pandemic spread, quarantine measures and regulations, health risks and symptoms of the virus, attitude towards China, and economic situation in the U.S.A and Italy over time. This will allow for a more issue-specific analysis of content and salient issues of the newspapers to better compare differences a) within the same newspaper in different periods, and b) compared to the other counterpart chosen. McLeod and Blumler (1987) stated that in order to actually identify characteristics in one system, it is necessary to have another one to use as comparison, so that specific elements and differences may be easily pointed out; for this reason, Italy-China and US-China relations will be used in a comparative way to point out the elements that characterize each relationship and that are different from the other one.
1.1. Why this topic:
Italy was the first country after China to report an alarming number of cases of Covid-19 that monopolized the attention of the local media for more than 3 months. Italian media are notorious for their biased, subjective tendency in news reportage. However, the relationship Italy has with China pushes the assumption that news portrayal of the pandemic and China will have a neutral-positive tone to it, seeing as many years of economic partnership and cultural exchange have forged a good general opinion in Italian media (Romano & Zanier, 2017).
The US are quickly following up on the wide-spread of virus contagion on their territory. The US have notoriously a turbulent relationship with the rising force of China and have encountered conflicts of opinion with it several times. The general trend in US media is to portray China as a threat not only to their liberal ideal, but to global stability as well (Okuda, 2016; Dong, 2010; Piper, 2006; Gladney, 2016), thus leading to the assumption that American media will portray the pandemic events and China in a negative light.
1.2. Relevance of this study
This paper will attempt to show how intern-nation relationships shape the use of frames and opinion making. From an academic point of view, analyzing the background information that helps determine the creation and use of frames (specific and non) in these two countries regarding international issues, provides a good starting point and methodology for a larger-scale analysis. As the world is now always connected and nations play an important role as actors and decision-makers in the global panorama, identifying the elements that influence a country’s opinion and attitude towards others can help researchers further understand the mechanisms that country uses in conveying messages to its audience (specifically through media) and through which it shapes the general opinion of its population. Through this analysis, researches and academics can advance theories and possible solutions to mitigate animosity and negative opinion making in international relations and especially in international news portrayal.
2. Literatures and Frameworks
2.1 Italy-China relationship
Modern relationship between China and Italy have started around the 1930s when Italian fascist party leader Mussolini found ideological compatibility with Chiang Kaishek, but were soon forced to stop with the events of WWII. After le liberation of the Italian peninsula with the help of the American troops, Italy was eager to re-establish a partnership with China, but was under the influence of Washington to not recognize the PRC and keep their distance form a socialist country, as the US were at cold war with the Soviet Union and feared another communist intervention from China. Previous studies have shown how Italy, because of its peculiar geographic position, is susceptible to external influences, and has both “Atlanticist” (or American) and “Europeanist” imprints in its approach to foreign policy (Sgueglia, 2011), creating a special situation where Italy supports the American influence while mitigating it with European elements. For this reason, despite the strong disagreement of the American government to engage in activities with the PRC, in the 1950s Italy started an economic and trading partnership with China, and through the 1960s the Italian left socialist party promoted economic and cultural exchanges with China, painting a positive image of the country (Samarani, 2014; Romano & Zanier, 2017). A study from Andornino, Marinelli, Prodi and Carini (2014) highlighted how through economic trade the relationship between Italy and China grew stronger over the years and the Italian government, with the participation in the “Belt and Road” initiative, started promoting cultural exchange and initiatives with China to further strengthen the relationship.
China also holds a general positive position in the Italian panorama, as many new successful businesses in Italy belong to Chinese people or are partnering with them and the trading industry and local markets have benefited from this (Prodi, 2014).
There have been a few instances where Italian representative figures have spoken out their doubts and reservations towards China and its role in the economic landscape (present and future) of Italy (like First Minister Berlusconi’s visit to Beijing in 2003), but overall the Italian government has held and promoted a favorable and positive image of China over the years with the principle of “understanding before passing judgment” (Coralluzzo, 2008; Carini, 2014), despite its sporadic occasions of lining up with the American direction (Marinelli & Andornino, 2014).
On an additional note, analyzing the publications in the national independent newspaper La Repubblica, which will be taken for study, articles related to China from the year 2013 to 2019 all show a rather neutral-positive attitude and tone in their representations of facts (sources from the La Repubblica online archives).
2.2 Sino-American relationship
The relationship between China and the United States has undergone some turbulent phases throughout the years. As the ideological and factual conflict with the Soviet Union during the Cold War left a deep mark on the history of the US, the socialist characteristics of the PRC government led Washington to hold a caution and mistrusting attitude towards Beijing from the very start (Piper, 2006; Wang, 2010; Wirth, 2019). The rapid rise in economic power of the PRC, the conflict over the Korean peninsula, the Yellow See dispute and, more recently, the worsening of the Trade War, has led the United States to promote a generally negative and suspicious image of China: the ideological conflict between liberal ideals and socialist beliefs, the taking of trading routs, the economic instability are some of the many elements that have directed American government and media to transmit an accusatory message towards China, often involving it in political debates, verbal attacks and discriminations (such as the accusation of Beijing’s involvement with the presidential elections of 2000), claiming that China constituted a threat not only to the American government directly, but to “world’s peace and stability” (Piper, 2006; Gladney 2016; Marsh & Dreyer, 2003; Yang, 2001; Wirth, 2019).
In her study on the use of frames, Hiroko Okuda (2019) examines how English media, especially American media, use specific frames to present the development of China and promote and image of the country that tends to cause anxiety, casting the country in a way to make it look more like an “enemy” than just a rival, promoting blame and mistrust towards the Beijing government (Okuda, 2019). She also argues how, by following the lead of the US, other countries can start adopting a more negative view of China and thus disrupt the global balance between countries and damage trading, economic and cultural relations.
2.3 News framing theory
Traditionally, framing is associated with the agenda-setting theory as an extension of it, focusing attention on particular events and then placing these into specific “frame” of meaning. One of the simplest ways to define framing is that how something is presented to the audience will influence how they perceive and process information. People interpret the world around them through a primary framework (Goffman, 1974). Primary frameworks, which aren’t influenced by any other frame, are usually divided into two categories, a) natural, or just the physical manifestation of the event, with no further implicit meaning attached, and b) social, that attach meaning to what has transpired, usually socially-driven occurrences (Goffman, 1974; Entman, 1993). Kinder & Sanders (1990) argue that frames are used to both define the internal structures of the minds of audiences and the political discourses that are presented. Similarly, Gitlin (1980) argues that frames organize the world both for those who use them (journalists, politicians) and those who they are meant for (audience), so journalists often rely on frames to quickly identify and classify information accordingly. Zhong & Friedland (1996) argued that frames serve as a link between society, culture and “everyday understanding of social interaction” (p.13).
Gamson & Modigliani (1987) defined a media frame as a central idea that helps find a central meaning to a series of related events, and similarly, Tuchman (1978) stated that news frames are used to organize daily reality. Entman (1993) further strengthens the idea that frames select specific information by stating that “[framing] is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, [so as] to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation” (p. 52).
For the purpose of this study, another aspect of framing is considered, that is, frames are considered as dependent variables, as this allows examining the role of several factors that influence the creation and modification of frames. As this study wants to examine the role of inter-nation relations on the formation and use of frames in online news reporting on a specific topic, by considering frames as dependent variables we seek to find the elements in the independent variables that influences journalists’ framing process in the countries chosen for the study (Shoemaker & Reese, 1996; Tuchman, 1978; Price, Tewksbury & Powers, 1995, 1996).
2.4 Repetitive news framing
Frames can be defined as patterns used to interpret, classify and process information in an efficient and organized way; this is done by focusing attention on certain parts of reality, consequently making other aspects less relevant. This exemplifies the selective role of frames in conveying information and suggesting certain ideas, thoughts, arguments and decisions to their audience (Scheufele, 2000; Lecheler & de Vreese, 2012).
For this study, time plays an important role in understanding the variations that can occur in issue-specific news reports over a long period. For this reason, it’s important to consider how frames are perceived and used by the media in repetitive patterns. Chong and Druckman (2007) stated that “small changes in the presentation of an issue or an event [can] produce larger changes of opinion”. Studies conducted by Noelle-Neumann (1973) and Peter (2004) analyzed two opposite schemes for information, one-sided and two-sided, that define the degree of influence on audience. One-sided information is constant and consistent and it’s provided in the same way over the time, while two-sided information presents sometimes contradicting and competing messages that can lead to the so called “nullification” of the media message, as audience will perceive such information as false and the outlet dispatching it unreliable. As such, information should be repeatable but not competitive (Lecheler & de Vreese, 2012). There has been a large number of studies to verify the validity of frame repetition over time (Iyengar, 1991; Cappella & Jamieson, 1997; Price & Tewksbury, 1997; Nabi, 2003; Holland, Verplanken & van Knippenberg, 2003; de Vreese & Boomgaarden, 2006) and collected data shows that repetitive news framing leads to stronger and stable attitude changes, as audiences tend to mainly rely on information that is constantly provided in more or less the same way over time. Same argument goes for the accessibility and recency of an issue: focus, importance and relevance are higher in new or more recent issues, timewise; that is to say, people will be more likely attracted to an unprecedented event than to something old. If a specific issue is repeated steadily with particular intervals in between, it is very likely to hold audience attention better and for longer (Lecheler & de Vreese, 2012).
2.5 Issue-specific framing
In some precedent studies, scholars have argued about the relevance of using issue-specific frames instead versus using more generic frames. De Vreese (2005) and Entman (1993) talked about the stronger impact and effect issue-specific frames have on leading and forming perceptions and judgments towards particular events. For the particular novelty case of the global pandemic, using issue-specific frames can help better organize and subdivide the events in more accessible and easier-to-understand categories, such as spread, infection rate, symptoms, government measures etc.
3. Methodology
This study proposes a comparative qualitative content analysis of online news reports in two newspapers, La Repubblica (Italy) and the New York Times (USA), regarding the coverage of the Covid-19 virus pandemic over four different time phases, in order to identify a) differences in use of frames and issue-specific elements in each newspaper with time, b) differences in use of frames and issue-specific elements compared between the two countries, and c) how the relationship each country has with China (independent variable) majorly influence the use of frames and issue-specific elements (dependent variables), and see the changes and eventual similarities they undergo with time.
Qualitative content analysis is one of the most common forms of analysis used in academic research that allows for subjective and partial interpretation of content through frames and specific patterns (Wimmer, 1997; Shannon 2005)
Through the operationalization of the elements that constitute a frame, researchers are able to obtain a detailed understanding of the elements that are being measured. For issue-specific framing, elements can be organized following determinate criteria such as relevant news, important words, recent events etc. (Kroepsch, 2003).
3.1 Operationalization of variables
Italy and USA relationship with China = independent variables
Media frames = dependent variables
Issue-specific frame elements = dependent variables
3.2 Frames
Pandemic frame:
Economic frame:
Political frame:
For this study, six main issue-specific frames common to both the Italian and the American newspaper are pointed out:
Pandemic spread: articles (including headlines, subtitles, paragraphs, sentences) that report on the spread of the virus, both globally and locally.
Lockdown and quarantine: articles (including headlines, subtitles, paragraphs, sentences) that report on the lockdown and quarantine measures initiated by governments (specifically Italian and American) to contain the spread of the virus.
Health hazards, risks, and countermeasures: articles (including headlines, subtitles, paragraphs, sentences) that report on information linked with describing health symptoms, risks and prevention actions to adopt during the pandemic.
Economic situation of the country: articles (including headlines, subtitles, paragraphs, sentences) that describe the impact the pandemic has on the economy of the country, the government measures to help the population, attitude and speculation on future economic situation.
Reference to China: articles (including headlines, subtitles, paragraphs, sentences) that include information about China and the Chinese government, comments, attitude, eventual political position
Causal agents: articles (including headlines, subtitles, paragraphs, sentences) that report on possible causes, perpetrators and helpers of the spread of the pandemic.
These topics, however, could create a non-exhaustive list of issue-specific frames, as in both countries there may be some additional different issues that were addressed in the two newspapers. Eventual additional frames will be added as the study progresses. Thus, we state our first question:
RQ1. What are the most relevant issue-specific frames that differ between the American and the Italian newspapers over the four different phases?
3.3 Sampling population
According to the data gathered by the WHO and ISS (Istituto Superiore di Sanità) between February and April 2020, Italy was the country with the most reported cases of Covid-19 following China. With the rapidly rising number of infected and deceased people, Italy was the first European country to enter the state of quarantine, with some of the most restrictive measures across the EU (Borrelli, 2020).
The United States are, as of data of June 20th 2020, the country with most reported cases of coronavirus, with over 2,2 million confirmed cases and over 100,000 deaths. Despite the initial warnings and examples set by other countries that have reported cases earlier in February, the US government didn’t apply quarantine measure until late March 2020.
Both La Repubblica and the New York Times have closely followed the development of the pandemic across the world and locally in their countries, with differences in reporting influenced by politics, culture, ideologies and media systems, thus presenting two different points of view on this anomalous situation. Thus, online articles regarding the case of Covid-19 will be taken into examination for both newspapers; sample size will be determined by the amount of total online articles on the coronavirus existing on July 31st. As these two newspapers have differences in publishing and scheduling, a proportionate number of articles will be selected using the random sampling procedure for both of them, in order to obtain an equal and valid representative sample for each.
3.4 Sampling period
The articles to be selected for the sampling will be taken from January 1st 2020 to July 31st 2020. This period of time, for convenience and better use of frames, will be divided as follows:
1st phase: January – February 2020, beginnings of the pandemic and first cases of foreign contagions, first quarantines
2nd phase: March – April 2020, spread of global infection and quarantine measures
3rd phase: May – June 2020, quarantine containment of the disease and slow down of spreading curve, lifted quarantine restrictions
4th phase: July 2020, final quarantine period, aftermath, second waves
Considering the differences and changes of the situation with time, we state:
HP1. For the 1st phase of analysis, the frames used by the newspapers in both the US and Italy focus mainly on pandemic spread, health hazards, virus characteristics and news reports of the inner situation in China.
HP2.1 For the 2nd phase, frames in La Repubblica focus mainly on the inner pandemic in Italy, infection rate, casualties, and first measures of lockdown, and less attention is dedicated to global information.
HP2.2 For the 2nd phase, frames in the New York Times focus mainly on the pandemic situation worldwide, with particular attention to China and the measured adopted by the Chinese government, while pushing forth a critical agenda towards China, and the discussion on quarantine measures in the US.
HP3. La Repubblica will use issue-specific frames mostly neutral-positive in the overall attitude to depict the pandemic and news related to China, while the New York Times will use issue-specific frames mostly negative in the overall attitude (especially in the 3rd and 4th phases).
HP4.1 In the 3rd phase, frames in La Repubblica focus mainly on the economic situation of the country, government measures for the pandemic, lifting of quarantine and a bigger implementation of international news compared to the 2nd phase.
HP4.2 In the 3rd phase, frames in the New York Times focus on inner pandemic spread in the US, casualties, health measures and prevention, sided by a blaming perspective towards China.
HP5.1 In the 4th phase, frames in La Repubblica focus mainly on the economic situation of the country and the monitoring of the pandemic spread worldwide.
RQ2. How does the start of the Black Lives Matter protests influence the use of frames in the 4th phase in the New York Times?
HP5.2 In the 4th phase, frames in the New York Times focus mainly on two topics, a) pandemic spread on American territory, and b) news reports of protests, street violence and monitoring of the Black Lives Matter movement, leading to a more political take on frames compared to the first 3 phases.
Looking at the frames that will be taken into analysis, and considering the relationship the two countries in this study have with China, we further hypothesize that:
HP6: Intern-nation relationships between China-US and China-Italy will be reflected in use of issue-specific frames regarding the pandemic and news about China itself, especially in the 3rd and 4th phases for Italy, and 2nd, 3rd and 4th phases in the US.
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